English began with three Germanic tribes who settled in Britain in the 5th century AD. Historians divide its history into three periods: Old English, Middle English, and Modern English, which is split into Early and Late Modern English.
Where does the English language come from, and how long have people spoken it? This guide answers these and other common questions about the history of English. Here are the periods at a glance:
| Period | Roughly |
|---|---|
| Old English | 450 to 1100 AD |
| Middle English | 1100 to 1500 |
| Early Modern English | 1500 to 1800 |
| Late Modern English | 1800 to the present |
The origin of the English language
The English language goes back to three Germanic tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. They crossed the North Sea and invaded Britain during the 5th century AD, coming from what is now Denmark and northern Germany. At that time, the inhabitants of Britain spoke Celtic languages. As the invaders pushed most of the Celtic speakers west and north, their own language took over. English is therefore a West Germanic language, and its closest relative is Frisian.
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Old English
The first period is called Old English, or Anglo-Saxon. The dialects of the Germanic settlers developed into this language, which was spoken from about 450 to 1100 AD. Old English neither looks nor sounds like the English used today, and most native English speakers would have great difficulty understanding it. Still, about half of the most common words in Modern English have Old English roots. Words such as be, strong, and water all come from Old English.
Middle English
In 1066, William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy (part of modern France), invaded and conquered England. The new conquerors spoke a kind of French, which became the language of the Royal Court and of the ruling and business classes. For a time there was a linguistic class division: the upper classes spoke French, and the lower classes spoke English.
In the 14th century, English became the dominant language in Britain again, but with many French words added. This language is called Middle English. It would still be difficult for a native English speaker today to understand it. One of the great poets of the Middle English era was Geoffrey Chaucer (about 1340 to 1400), the author of The Canterbury Tales.
Early Modern English
Toward the end of the Middle English period, a major change in pronunciation began. It is known as the Great Vowel Shift: the long vowels were pronounced higher in the mouth, and some of them became two-part sounds (diphthongs). This is one reason why English spelling often does not match the way words sound.
From the 16th century, the British had contact with many peoples around the world. This contact, together with the Renaissance of Classical learning, brought many new words and phrases into the language.
The invention of printing also meant that there was now a common language in print. Books became cheaper, and more people learned to read. Printing brought standardization to English: spelling and grammar became fixed, and the dialect of London, where most publishing houses were, became the standard. In 1604, Robert Cawdrey published A Table Alphabeticall, which is often called the first English dictionary. The Early Modern English era also produced the works of the famous poet, playwright, and actor William Shakespeare.
Late Modern English
The main difference between Early Modern and Late Modern English is vocabulary. Late Modern English has many more words, for two main reasons. First, the Industrial Revolution and new technology created a need for new words. Second, at its height the British Empire covered about a quarter of the world's land area, and English adopted many words from other languages along the way.
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English around the world
Just as the British shaped English at the height of their empire, American English now has a similar influence on the rest of the world. This is partly due to the strength of the United States in popular music, film, television, and technology, and the internet spreads American English further. Still, there are many other varieties of English around the world, from British and Australian to Indian and South African English. If you write for readers in one country, see how to keep British or American spelling consistent.